3. What is the scope of linguistics?
[1]General linguistics----to study of language as a whole-----the core(核心) of linguistics. What is macro-linguistics?
The study of language in relation to other disciplines, e.g. sociolinguistics
[2] branches of linguistics: Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics Phonetics:the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.
Phonology:the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication. Morphology:the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax:the study of the rules for sentence formation Semantics:the study of meaning.
Pragmatics:the study of meaning in the context of language use. Above are made up of the core of linguistics. 4. What are design features [unique] of language? Arbitrariness, duality, displacement, interchangeability, creativity, cultural transmission. ⑴arbitrariness
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. ⑵Productivity
Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement
Language is free from barriers caused by separation of time and place. ⑸Cultural transmission
The details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. (6) creativity
Language users can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentences.
5. Some important distinctions in linguistics.
(1) What is the distinction of prescriptive and descriptive?
Prescribe what people should say, describe what people actually use. (2) What is the distinction of competence and performance?
The ideal user’s knowledge of language rules and the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (3) What is the distinction of synchronic and diachronic? The study of language in time and through time. (4) What is the distinction of langue and parole?
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use. (5) What is the distinction of speech and writing?
Natural/primary and invented/secondary media of human language.
(6) What is the distinction of traditional grammar and modern linguistics?
(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn’t force languages into a Latin-based framework.
1. Morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. 2. Open class and closed class
open class words: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words.
closed class words: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.
*Content words / lexical words: Those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.
function words /grammatical words: Those express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.
variable words/invariable words: In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.
3. Morphemes----the minimal units of meaning
①Morpheme词素: The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function ②word: the smallest free form found in language.
③bound morpheme黏着词素: morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be attached to another one. It includes derivational morpheme派生词素 & inflectional morpheme曲折词素. ④free morpheme自由词素: a morpheme that can be a word by itself.
⑤allomorphs同词素的异形词: the variant forms of a porpheme are called its allomorphs. 4. Analyzing word structure
①Roots词根: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major commonent of its meaning. ②Affix词缀: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.
③Suffix后缀: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.
④Prefix前缀: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.
5. Derivational and inflectional morphemes
①derivational morpheme派生语素: Bound morphemes which change the category or grammatic class of words.(改变词性)
②inflectional morpheme曲折语素： Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concept as tense,number,case and so on.(表时态/语态等)
③inflection练习音调变化: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. inThe rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense. 6. Morphological rules of word formation构词的词素音位规则
①morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.
②productive morphological rules: morphological rules that can be used quite freely to new words. 7. Derivation
derivation: an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.
8. Compounds: or compound words , words formed by strinking words together.
1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category: E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)
2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound. E.g. under ‘take (v), in’action (n), up’lift (v)
3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.
E.g. ‘redcoat, ‘greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not. 4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoat
Conclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.
1. What is phonetics语音学? What is phonolopy?
(1)Phonetics: it studies the production, transmission and perception of speech sounds, is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. (2)Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
The phonic medium of language. Speech and sound are two media used by natural language for communication. Two thirds of languages do not have written forms today. Linguists are interested in the sounds produced by speech organs and play an important role in linguistics communication. The meaningful sounds in human communication constitute the phonic media of language .The meaningful individual sound is called speech sound. 2. What are three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?
Articulatory, acoustic, auditory
①Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学）
②Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学） ③Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.（声学语音学）
①Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
②Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.
③Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.
3. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?
语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?
Phonetics—description of all speech sounds and their find differences.
Phonology—description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.
4. What are the three cavities in speech production?(organs of speech)
The articulatory apparatus contains pharyngeal cavity(咽腔), oral cavity（口腔） and nasal cavity（鼻腔）.
5. Phonology and phonetics(区别和联系)
(1)Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sound, but they differ in their approach and focus.
(2)Phonetics is of a general nature, while phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language. 6. Phone, phoneme, and allophone(区别和联系)
(1)phone: a phonetic unit or segment; a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. (2)phoneme: a phonological unit, abstract and of distinctive value.
(3)allophone: the different phones that represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.
7. Some rules in phonology
Phonological rules are to study how phonemes are combined a. Sequential rules: The rules that govern the combination of sounds in particular language. Those rules are language specific and what is permissible in one language may be not in another. b. Assimilation rules: The assimilation rules assimilate one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus, making the two phones similar. c. Deletion rules: it tells when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically presented. 8. What are speech sounds? Meaningful sounds in human linguistic communication.
9. What is a minimal pair?
A pair of sound sequences identical in every way except for one sound segment occurring in the same place in the strings.
10. What is assimilation? A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound 11. What are major suprasegmental features? Syllable, stress, tone, intonation 12. What are the four Chinese tones? Level, rise, fall-rise, fall
13. How do intonations convey meanings?
Falling indicates a straight-forward statement, rising makes a question, and fall-rise indicates an implied message.
1. What is syntax? The study of sentence structure and the rules by which sentences are formed. 2. What are the four representative approaches to Syntax? Traditional, structural, TG, functional. 3. What are the categories of noun? Number, case, gender.
4. Syntactic relations can be ananlysed into three kinds: position, substitutability, co-occurrence. 5. What is a sentence? The minimum part of L that expresses a complete thought, traditionally.
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